World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations and the Course of History

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was born to a noble family in Schönhausen and was the first Chancellor of unified Germany between 1871-1890. Bismarck studied law and served in the Prussian Army. He began his political career by serving in the Prussian legislature and, through diplomatic positions, became one of the most accomplished statesmen in European history. He is best known for the unification of Germany in 1871.

Between 1864 and 1871, Bismarck carried out successful wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. One of the results of these conflicts was Germany conquering the Alsace–Lorraine region and making his country more powerful as a result. Indeed, the unification of Germany began in the 1860s. By 1871, the new political entity led by Prussia included most of the smaller German states except for Austria.

Kissinger focuses on Bismarck in World Order because he was one of the key 19th-century personalities shaping international relations in Europe. He used the traditional European balance-of-power politics to make Germany the most powerful state on the European continent.

Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (1773-1859) was one of the most significant diplomats in European history. He is best known as the Foreign Minister of Austria (1809-1848) and its Chancellor (1821-1848). Metternich’s input into the Congress of Vienna (1815) after the Napoleonic wars ensured relative peace for Europe until World War I, excluding the Crimean War (1853-1856).

Kissinger emphasizes Metternich’s commitment to the European balance of power in which no one country was hegemonic toward others. The European congresses meant to maintain the established balance of power, such as Troppau (1820) and Laibach (1821), helped solidify his international status. Eventually, Metternich’s influence declined. From the mid-1830s, he only focused on external issues. During the Revolutions of 1848, Metternich was forced to leave office because he was viewed as a reactionary. As a result, he was exiled in England but returned to Vienna in 1851 where he spent the remainder of his life.

Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-1989), whose birth name was Sayyed Ruhollah Mustafavi Khomeini, was the Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 until his death. Exiled in Turkey and France since 1964, Khomeini returned to Iran in 1979 to replace Shah Reza Pahlavi. After the Revolution that year, Iran transformed from a monarchy to the Islamic Republic.

Khomeini is a central figure in the Middle Eastern regional order for Kissinger. Under his leadership, Iran transformed from a West-facing secular state to the Islamic Republic. Kissinger points out that Khomeini’s idea of international order was very different from the traditional European balance-of-power politics. He argues that to Khomeini, the state was a mere instrument in a greater religious struggle. This direction in foreign policy transformed the regional order in the Middle East and international relations, at large, because of Iran’s participation in global organizations like the United Nations. 

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States, serving in office for 12 years between 1933 and 1945. Born in Hyde Park, New York, Roosevelt worked as the Assistant of the United States Secretary of the Navy during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson. Partially paralyzed from poliomyelitis in the 1920s, his illness had little effect on his political career. In 1928 he became the Governor of New York and was subsequently elected President in the 1930s.

FDR’s two greatest challenges were the Great Depression and World War II. He implemented several sweeping state-run programs under the New Deal to mitigate the economic hardship of the 1930s. American participation in World War II began with Lend-Lease help for the Allies during a period of neutrality. However, after Japan’s Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941, the United States officially entered that war.

Kissinger selected FDR for his unique foreign-policy style because this president had to navigate a very challenging socio-economic situation domestically as the international counterpart headed toward disaster. The author considers FDR a cautious statesman focused on neutrality until this approach was no longer possible. The President used his diplomatic skills during the impactful Allied conferences during World War II in Tehran and Yalta. Ultimately, America rose to superpower status after World War II, and FDR’s diplomatic style contributed to this change in the global order.

Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt (1858-1919) was the 26th President of the United States. Roosevelt was in power between 1901 and 1909. Born in New York City, Roosevelt served in the New York City Legislature. He also held other positions, such as the Civil Service Commissioner, prior to being appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Instead, he joined the US Army to participate in the Spanish-American War of 1898. Roosevelt subsequently became the Governor of New York and rose to be the Vice-President. When President McKinley was assassinated in 1901, Roosevelt became President of the United States.

Kissinger focuses on Roosevelt because of his original approach to foreign policy. This was a period when America expanded its imperial ambitions when Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico became US colonies after the Spanish-American War. Roosevelt’s brokerage of the Portsmouth Treaty (1905) after the Russo-Japanese War earned him the Nobel Peace Prize and signaled greater American participation in international affairs. The Roosevelt Corollary (1904-1905) was an extension of the 19th-century Monroe Doctrine, which justified direct American interventionism in the Western hemisphere. Overall, Kissinger describes Teddy Roosevelt as realistic and focused on national interest but also concerned with extending America’s role as a great power on the rise.