The Odyssey

“Telemachus, what bold words! But we are not to blame. It is your own mother who leads us on but refuses to choose a husband from among us. The clever woman stalls us with her tricks.”

Antinoos, the ringleader of the suitors, demonstrates his unsavory character when he refuses to leave Penelope alone until she chooses one of the suitors as her husband. Antinoos describes the tricks that Penelope has used to “lead [the suitors] on” without choosing one of them as a husband—tricks that demonstrate that Penelope matches her husband Odysseus in cunning.

“My friend, I have no fears for you, if at such a young age you’re so favored by the gods. Why, that can only have been Athena, Zeus’s gray-eyed daughter, who always favored your father in battle!”

Nestor sees Athena’s decision to aid Telemachus as a favorable sign that he and his family are favored by the gods. This divine favor is essential in the story, for without Athena’s help, Odysseus would not be able to return home and beat the suitors.

“Bad news, lads! We thought Telemachus would never make the voyage, and here he’s carried it off beneath our noses! That boy is going to give us trouble. Quick, get me a swift ship and twenty men. We’ll catch him in the straits between Ithaca and the bluffs of Same and sink his ambitions.”

Antinoos and the suitors want to annihilate Odysseus’s line; not only are they seeking to take away his wife and property, but they plot to kill his only son as well. With Telemachus dead, the line of Odysseus would come to an end. For this reason, the suitors present an existential threat to Odysseus and his family, and only by killing them will Odysseus be able to protect his family and reestablish himself on his island of Ithaca.

“You cruel, jealous gods! You never allow a goddess to love a mortal man. When rose-fingered Dawn fell in love with Orion, Artemis struck him down with her arrows. When Demeter lay with Iasion, Zeus smote him with a lightning bolt. And now you will take my lover away, even though I saved him from drowning, nursed him to health, offer him immortality.”

Calypso’s words to Hermes are a reminder of an important double standard in ancient Greek society, which requires women to observe standards of sexual restraint and fidelity that do not apply to men. This is true of goddesses as well as mortal women. Just as the goddess Calypso cannot consort with mortals the way male gods consort with human women, so too Penelope must remain completely faithful to Odysseus although he himself sees nothing wrong with taking incidental lovers, such as Calypso and Circe, during his travels.

“Now, don’t be angry, Calypso. Of course no mortal woman can rival a goddess for beauty of face and form. My Penelope must age and die, while you have unfading youth. Nevertheless, it is my one wish, the never-fading ache in my heart, to return to her and to my own house.”

By refusing Calypso’s offer to become immortal, Odysseus highlights just how important his family and his home are to him. As a mortal, Odysseus defines himself by his responsibilities of taking care of his home and family and serving as a leader to his people. Because these responsibilities are central to his identity, he can't choose immortality over his family and home.

“If the gods wish you to suffer, there is nothing to be done but endure it—but here on this island, you will not lack for hospitality.”

The gods determine most of what happens in the story, including Odysseus’s wanderings, his return, and the death of the suitors. Because the intervention of the gods controls human life, humans cannot do anything but accept the gods’ decisions, as gods are more powerful than they are.

“Years of troubles, countless heartaches I’ve endured upon the sea, and now I’m wrecked upon your shore. All I want is to see my homeland again, my family and my high-roofed hall.”

Odysseus applies to Queen Arete and King Alcinoos, the rulers of the Phaeacians, for aid, referring to all the suffering he has endured—a reference that foreshadows Odysseus’s longer and more detailed account of his adventures in Books 9-12. Yet the cautious Odysseus withholds his identity, preferring to keep his name secret until he is sure that he is safe—a hard lesson that Odysseus learns from his rash action of revealing his name to the vengeful Polyphemus.

“Those are foolish words, my friend. A man may look like nothing much, but be gifted by the gods in song, or strategy—who knows?”

The young Phaeacian who challenges Odysseus, Euryalus, addresses him insultingly, and this provokes Odysseus to demonstrate his heroic strength. Odysseus also delivers an important lesson to the young man. In the mythical world of the story, everything comes from the gods, including skill, strength, and appearance. Because of that, looks can be deceiving, and a person should respect everybody they encounter without making potentially dangerous assumptions about their status or ability.

“You see, this was the land of the Lotus Eaters. They made my men friendly offers of the fruit from the lotus plant, which made them forget all their cares, forget their homes too, and want nothing more than to stay and enjoy the blissful euphoria this plant bestows.”

The idea of home is a major motif in the story, which is at its core the story of everything Odysseus must endure to get home. Odysseus feels it is his duty to fulfill his responsibilities to his family and his kingdom—responsibilities that make up his identity as a leader, husband, father, and hero. The land of the Lotus Eaters therefore represents a very serious threat to Odysseus, for by causing people to forget their homes and responsibilities, the lotus plant opposes Odysseus’s entire identity.

“ODYSSEUS. Sir, we are travelers from afar who chanced upon your shore and found your cave. We humbly beg your hospitality. Remember that guests are under the protection of Zeus.

POLYPHEMUS. Zeus? Ha! We cyclopes do not fear the gods.”

Polyphemus demonstrates his uncivilized nature by refusing Odysseus’s request for hospitality (a cornerstone of civilized society) and by scorning the gods. By representing Polyphemus as an unsavory character, Odysseus justifies his violence toward the creature.

“Pitiful man. The gods must truly despise you, and I will not go against their will. Leave my hall and never return!”

Aeolus is the first to realize that Odysseus has crossed the gods, and from this point on, Odysseus’s fortunes quickly take a turn for the worse. Odysseus himself soon discovers that blinding Poseidon’s son Polyphemus was a mistake, and he suffers great hardships as Poseidon fulfills Polyphemus’s curse.

“Once you have killed these men, whether in open combat or by stealth, and put your house in order, you must take your oar with you and travel inland until you reach a country where men know nothing of ships or the sea. You will know you’ve reached the place when a stranger asks you what is on your shoulder and thinks it a flail or some tool for threshing grain.

There you must plant your oar and make a rich sacrifice to Lord Poseidon—a ram, a bull, and a breeding boar—asking his forgiveness for putting out the eye of his son Polyphemus. Then return home and make rich sacrifices to all the gods in turn. If you do this, then death will come upon you peacefully in old age, with your loved ones around you.”

Tiresias’s prophecy indicates that Odysseus’s troubles will not end when he reaches Ithaca. Even when he does get home, Odysseus will need to deal with the suitors threatening his property and family, and after that, he will need to make another journey to make amends to the god Poseidon. Only after Odysseus has accomplished all of this will his toils finally be over.

“I’d rather be plowing a furrow, or the lowest servant in some peasant king’s employ, than a lord among these empty souls.”

Achilles’s words to Odysseus express the value of human life. Though Achilles was a great hero and is honored even among the dead—as Odysseus notes—he would still prefer to live the humblest of lives rather than endure his current misery. The contrast between the sweetness of life and the bitterness of death emphasizes the tragic aspects of Achilles’s own story.

“What, old campaigner, Sacker of Troy, are you worried about a pack of young pups?

Use those famous wits of yours to make a plan. I will help you when the battle comes.”

Though on the surface the suitors present a very real threat to Odysseus—the threat of many against one—Athena reminds Odysseus that he can rely on his cunning as well as on the help of the gods. Beginning with his arrival on Ithaca, Odysseus’s fortunes improve, with Athena’s and Zeus’s favor becoming increasingly apparent.

“I would not turn away a man in need, for all beggars come in Zeus’s name.”

Eumaeus shows Odysseus kindness and hospitality even though he does not have much to give. By doing so, Eumaeus demonstrates his pious nature, aligning himself with the hospitable and civilized Phaeacians while distancing himself from the uncivilized characters such as Polyphemus (who mocked Odysseus and ate his men).

“No questions yet. I must make a plan to slay the vermin who infest my palace.”

Though he has just been reunited with his son after 20 years, Odysseus cuts the emotional meeting short with a reminder that there is pressing business to attend to. The first thing Odysseus and Telemachus must do is eliminate the suitors, who pose a threat to their family and property.

“Argos is his name. Odysseus raised him from a pup, and he was not full-grown when his master left for Troy—yet he was the fastest and bravest in the hunt. Old age and misery are his masters now. He’s waited almost twenty years for Odysseus to return.”

It is not only his family that Odysseus must protect, but his entire household, including his servants and even his animals. An especially meaningful moment comes when Odysseus recognizes his old hunting dog, Argos, who lies neglected in a heap of filth outside of the palace. Argos’s degraded state reflects the broader state of Odysseus’s household and the island of Ithaca in the king’s absence.

“It’s a pity you have more looks than sense. You sit there eating another man’s food, and won’t give me a few scraps.”

There is nothing easier than giving away a few morsels of another man’s food, as the disguised Odysseus tells Antinoos. Yet Antinoos, who is already eating Odysseus’s food, is too stingy to share it even with a beggar. This behavior highlights Antinoos’s injustice and shows that, from Odysseus’s perspective, the arrogant suitor deserves to die.

“You know me—my blood and bones are yours. I will never betray you. When you have killed the suitors, I can tell you which of the maids are loyal and which should be killed.”

Eurycleia, the old servant, is the first human being to recognize Odysseus without any assistance. She immediately declares her loyalty to Odysseus, and her actions serve as the only proof Odysseus needs (whereas he must test other characters, including Eumaeus, before he decides to trust them). Eurycleia promises to help Odysseus regain his household by pointing out the disloyal servants.

“There are two gates by which a dream may enter: one of shining ivory, one of plain horn. The dreams from the ivory gate are glimmering illusions that signify nothing. But those from the horn gate can come true—if only we know which is which!”

Penelope’s description of the “two gates by which a dream may enter” reflects the ambivalence of the gods and the signs that they send to humans. Some signs and dreams can reveal the truth, but others can be deceiving, and Penelope will not allow herself to be deceived. The ambivalence of dreams, which can be truthful or deceptive, also mirrors Odysseus’s nature, for Odysseus also decides in each situation whether to lie or to tell the truth.

“Poor doomed men! Can’t you see what the gods have in store for you? This hall is filled already with the shades of the dead!”

Despite numerous warnings, the suitors do not change their ways. As the critical moment approaches, the signs of the suitors’ doom grow more and more obvious, signaling that Odysseus is coming back but also that the gods are on his side.

“You curs! You thought you’d get away with your rapacious ways, consuming my goods, seducing my maids, and courting my wife while I was away at Troy. You thought your king would never come back alive. Now black death will take you all.”

Odysseus reprimands the suitors just before he kills them, acting as judge, jury, and executioner. Because the suitors have transgressed against Odysseus, it is right that they should die at his hand.

“Odysseus, forgive me! You know the reason for my caution. The gods gave us so much pain—they kept us apart through the summer of our lives. I armed myself long ago against falsehoods: the lies and seductions of so many strangers who came seeking to win me over. Never would I let myself suffer Helen’s fate.”

Penelope, finally convinced that Odysseus is who he claims to be, apologizes for her prior caution and coldness, not wanting him to mistake her behavior for a lack of enthusiasm to see her husband again. However, Penelope’s caution also highlights her faithfulness and intelligence; she is cautious precisely because she does not want to be tricked into being unfaithful to Odysseus.