The Mayor of Casterbridge

Fiction | Novel | Adult | Published in 1886

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Chapters 1-9

Chapters 10-18

Chapters 19-27

Chapters 28-36

Chapters 37-45

Character Analysis

Themes

Symbols & Motifs

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Discussion Questions

Background

Authorial Context: Thomas Hardy and Wessex

Thomas Hardy was one of the most prominent novelists and poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His life and work were closely intertwined with the fictional region of Wessex, which served as the backdrop for many of his novels and poems. Hardy was born on June 2, 1840, in Higher Bockhampton, a small village in Dorset, England. His father worked as a stonemason and his mother was a talented and ambitious musician. Hardy’s early life was marked by rural landscapes and the strong influence of his family. He received his early education at the local school, and it was during these formative years that he developed a deep connection to the landscapes of Dorset.

Hardy’s passion for literature and writing led him to work as an apprentice architect in Dorchester, a position that allowed him to study extensively in his free time. He began writing poetry during this period and published his first poem in a local newspaper at the age of 17. Realizing his literary ambitions, he moved to London in 1862 to work as a freelance writer and further his studies. In 1871, Hardy published his first novel, Desperate Remedies. Hardy’s literary works are notable for their exploration of the human condition, social issues, and the changing face of rural England. His novels often feature characters who struggle against the constraints of class, society, and fate. Novels such as Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891), and Jude the Obscure (1895) are celebrated for their vivid portrayal of life in rural Wessex, their complex characters, and their engagement with themes of fate, morality, and the inexorable forces of nature.

Wessex, a fictional region based on the southwest of England, is central to Hardy’s literary universe. The landscapes, customs, and culture of the region are integral elements of his storytelling. Wessex encompasses the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Devon, and its portrayal in Hardy’s work is not merely geographical; it is a symbolic representation of the complex interplay between human lives and the environment. Wessex enabled Hardy to lay bare the realities of rural life, to observe the influence of nature on the human condition, and, perhaps most importantly, to explore the tension between tradition and progress as the region was industrialized. The encroachment of modernity and urbanization upon the traditional ways of rural life is a recurring theme in his work.

Hardy’s works, particularly Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure were met with controversy and censorship due to their challenging themes and perceived immorality. The exploration of sexual and social issues in his novels brought him into direct conflict with the strict Victorian moral code, leading to his disillusionment with the novel as a literary form. This experience influenced his decision to focus on poetry in the latter part of his career. In the early 20th century, Hardy transitioned from novel writing to poetry, producing some of his most enduring works. He continued to write poetry until his death, which occurred on January 11, 1928, at the age of 87.

Literary Context: Victorian Realism

Victorian realism is a literary movement that emerged during the 19th century in England. It is marked by a focus on representing the world as it is, often exploring the complexities of human nature and society. Realist writers of the Victorian era were meticulous in their depictions of everyday life. They aimed to capture the intricacies of existence through the settings, social interactions, and psychology of their characters. Realist authors explored and critiqued the social issues of their time. The genre delved into class distinctions, industrialization, urbanization, and the consequences of rapid change, providing a critique of prevailing norms and values. In contrast to earlier archetypal characters, realist writers created complex, multi-dimensional characters with a range of motivations, flaws, and virtues. These characters were intended to reflect the depth and complexity of real people. Realist literature was notable for its meticulous attention to detail. This often extended to the use of dialects, geography, and even scientific facts to add authenticity to their work. Because the Victorian era was marked by a preoccupation with morality, realist writers often grappled with moral dilemmas in their work. They questioned traditional moral codes and often depicted moral ambiguity in their characters.

Victorian realists were among the first to explore the inner workings of the human mind. Authors like George Eliot and Thomas Hardy delved into the psychological states of their characters, presenting a more nuanced understanding of human behavior. Added to this, realist writers aimed for objectivity in their narratives. Realists strived to remove authorial judgment, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions from the material. One of the most prominent figures in Victorian literature, Charles Dickens, exemplified Victorian realism in works such as Oliver Twist, Great Expectations, and Hard Times. Similarly, George Eliot was known for her in-depth exploration of the human psyche and moral dilemmas. Her novels, including Middlemarch and Silas Marner, examined the complexities of individual lives and the societal structures that shaped them.

Thomas Hardy, whose later works transitioned toward literary naturalism, is renowned for his portrayal of the harsh realities of rural life and the inevitability of fate. The Mayor of Casterbridge is preoccupied with moral ambiguity. The protagonist, Michael Henchard, is an abusive figure who cannot keep hold of his emotions. He strives for redemption but sows the seeds of his own destruction. Rather than a hero, he is a morally complex protagonist whose behavior ranges from damnable to commendable. The moral complexity of his character is a hallmark of Victorian realism.

The legacy of Victorian literary realism is profound and far-reaching. It laid the foundation for modern literature by emphasizing the importance of realistic portrayals of life, the complexities of human nature, and the exploration of moral and social issues. The focus on the inner workings of the human mind, a key trend of Victorian realism, set the stage for the development of psychological and stream-of-consciousness narratives in the 20th century. The creation of multi-dimensional, relatable characters such as Michael Henchard allows readers to connect with and understand the characters on a deeper level. The pursuit of objectivity and the removal of authorial intrusion have informed various narrative techniques, including the rise of first-person narrators, unreliable narrators, and experimental storytelling.

Socio-Historical Context: Women in Victorian Society

The Victorian era, spanning Queen Victoria’s reign from 1837 to 1901, is often characterized by its strict adherence to social norms, moral values, and rigid gender roles. During this time, the prevailing gender ideology centered on the concept of “separate spheres” for men and women. Women were confined to the domestic sphere, where their roles revolved around the family, housekeeping, and social decorum. They were expected to be virtuous, modest, and devoted to their husbands and children. The home was considered their domain and their responsibilities included managing the household, educating the children, and overseeing social engagements. In The Mayor of Casterbridge, Elizabeth-Jane aspires to be the head of a household and, as a woman from a poor background, envisions a day in which she is given such a responsibility by a husband.

One of the most significant challenges faced by Victorian women was limited access to education. Formal education for women was often rudimentary, with a curriculum that emphasized domestic skills and moral education. Women rarely had access to higher education and professional careers, perpetuating the notion that women were primarily suited for roles within the home. A woman’s social standing and economic security were closely tied to her ability to secure a suitable husband. Marrying well was a means of achieving financial stability, social acceptance, and personal fulfillment. Women were expected to be dependent on their husbands both economically and emotionally. In terms of property and legal rights, Victorian women faced numerous restrictions. Before the passage of the Married Women’s Property Act in 1870, a married woman had no legal claim to her husband’s property or earnings. All her possessions, including any inheritance, became the property of her husband upon marriage. This lack of property rights made women vulnerable, as they had no financial security or autonomy.

Despite these societal constrictions, the Victorian era also witnessed challenges to traditional gender roles and norms. Several key factors contributed to the gradual transformation of women’s roles during this period, many of which are hinted at in The Mayor of Casterbridge. The Industrial Revolution created new economic opportunities. Women found employment in factories, textile mills, and domestic service, leading to economic independence for some. However, these opportunities often came with grueling working conditions and low wages. The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 allowed women to petition for divorce on the grounds of cruelty, desertion, and adultery. While obtaining a divorce was still challenging, it represented a significant step toward legal protection for women trapped in unhappy or abusive marriages. Susan in The Mayor of Casterbridge is bound by the unfairness of these laws, as she is unsure whether she is legally or morally free of her marriage to Henchard, even though she has been sold to Newson. She believes that the law views her as property, to be bought and sold at the behest of men.

The Victorian era left a complex and lasting legacy for women’s roles and rights. While women of this period faced significant challenges and constraints, the seeds of change were being sown. The women’s rights movements that emerged during this era laid the groundwork for the more substantial advancements that would follow in the 20th century. Legal reforms continued to improve women’s rights in the 20th century. Changes in marriage and property laws, as well as greater legal protection for women, reduced their vulnerability and increased their autonomy.