The Heart Of Redness

The Middle Generations

Twin-Twin is: 

[T]he first of the twins to be born, so according to custom he was the younger. The older twin is the one who is the last to kick the doors of the womb and to breathe the air that has already been breathed by the younger brother (13). 

While they were alike as young men, Twin-Twin and his brother begin to have divergent beliefs that result in a rift that continues not only for their rest of their lives but gets passed down from generation to generation. Twin-Twin shows himself to be less likely to get swept up in religious fervor. When the prophet Mlanjeni declares that Twin-Twin’s senior wife is a witch, Twin-Twin objects and is beaten. The scars from that beating are passed down to the first-born male of each subsequent generation. When the prophetesses of the Middle Generations insist that the amaXhosa have to kill all of their cattle and destroy their crops in order to bring about the resurrection of their ancestors and destruction of the white usurpers, Twin-Twin rejects their claims and refuses to comply. Even though Twin-Twin has had to make an uneasy alliance with the British administrators to save his cattle from the Believers, he resents the British for their actions against the amaXhosa, including the buying off of the chiefs and the stealing of land. Twin-Twin rejects the efforts of others to convert him to Christianity, telling them: 

[H]e could not join a religion that allowed its followers to treat people the way the British had treated the amaXhosa. He was indeed disillusioned with all religions. He therefore invented his own Cult of the Unbelievers—elevating unbelieving to the heights of a religion (259).

The Middle Generations

Twin not only differs from his brother in his ability to get swept up in religious fervor, but also in his ability to love and respect a woman. While Twin-Twin is a rampant womanizer who jokes about raping the young prophetesses with whom he disagrees with, Twin marries Qukezwa, a Khoikhoi woman who had prostituted herself in order to assist the Khoikhoi and amaXhosa soldiers in their fight against the British. While Twin-Twin has many wives, Twin and Qukezwa form a partnership, and Twin often follows her lead when it comes to spiritual and practical matters. While Twin-Twin has the ability to be practical and make uncomfortable alliances, Twin is uncompromising in his beliefs and his actions. Twin-Twin thinks critically and adheres to tradition. Twin is more open-minded and unquestioning of those he chooses to follow. While Qukezwa’s concern for keeping their son Heitsi alive eventually leads her to abandon the prophesies, Twin’s belief never wavers, and he dies “raving mad” (258) in a facility set up by the British. Twin’s legacy is one of conservation for his descendants. They believe in preserving the land where the prophesies were made in the Middle Generations.

The Middle Generations

Twin’s Khoikhoi wife is treated as an equal by her husband. Twin adopts Qukezwa’s religious beliefs and trusts her to lead him and the others to Qolorha when the brothers need to move to keep their cattle from getting the “lungsickness” brought over by European livestock. Like her namesake, she is a spiritual woman who finds herself drawn to the sea.

The Middle Generations

Also known as “the Man of the River” (14), Mlanjeni was a prophet who blamed witchcraft for the famine that was causing the death of so many amaXhosa people. After Twin-Twin had been beaten because of Mlanjeni declaring that his senior wife was a witch, he felt betrayed when Twin continued to follow Mlanjeni, unquestioningly. But when the British set their sights on arresting Mlanjeni, Twin-Twin stood alongside his brother and the other amaXhosa warriors to protect the prophet, in “the Great War of Mlanjeni” (19). Mlanjeni prophesied that “the guns of the British would shoot hot water instead of bullets” (19), but this did not happen, and the British finally won by burning crops and attacking unarmed amaXhosa women. Mlanjeni died of tuberculosis six months after the amaXhosa forces surrendered to the British. Like Mhlakaza and the prophetesses, Mlanjeni inspires others to take actions that result in large scale death and destruction.

The Middle Generations

The twins had known Mhlakaza when he had gone by the name Wilhelm Goliath. Mhlakaza comes from a distinguished amaXhosa family and his father had served as one of King Sarhili’s councillors. Mhlakaza became baptized in the Methodist Church before converting to the Anglican Church:

Wilhelm Goliath boasted that he was the first umXhosa ever to receive the Anglican Communion. He could recite the Creed, all Ten Commandments in their proper order, and the Lord’s Prayer. He spoke the language of the Dutch people too, as if he was one of them (48). 

It is not until he is personally insulted by the treatment he receives from his fellow Anglicans that he returns to his ancestral village, Qolorha. Mhlakaza calls a public meeting to tell everyone that his niece, Nongqawuse, and his sister-in-law, Nombanda, had received prophesies and the amaXhosa must destroy all their cattle and crops. While both brothers initially dismiss the prophesies, Twin eventually becomes a fervent follower.

The Middle Generations

While Mhlakaza was the mouthpiece, he reported that it was Nongqawuse and the other young prophetesses who spoke with the “Strangers” (54) who handed down the prophesies concerning the cattle-killing and the necessary destruction of crops. In post-apartheid South Africa, Nongqawuse’s legacy is polarizing. While some, like Qukezwa, still believe in the prophesies, there are many who blame the horrors of the Middle Generations on Nongqawuse and the other young women for causing the conditions that allowed the British to gain control over the amaXhosa people.

The Middle Generations

Also known as “The Man Who Named Ten Rivers” (84), Sir George Grey epitomizes colonial aggression. He sees himself as bringing civilization to “the natives”: “Of course he had to take their land in return for civilization. Civilization is not cheap” (84). Grey benefits from the divisions within the amaXhosa nation, as well as frictions between different African nations. He is not satisfied with stealing land, but also tries to destroy the culture of the amaXhosa people, as well as the surrounding nations. He renames landmarks, buys off the chiefs, takes over the education of their sons, and replaces their laws. However, Grey sees himself as the benefactor of the amaXhosa people. He considers it in their best interest when he steals their land, tries to destroy their culture, and usurps the authority of the chiefs.

The Middle Generations

The son of a great prophet, Mjuza has converted to Christianity and supports Grey’s colonizing efforts. He argues to Twin-Twin that “Grey was a friend of the amaXhosa […] Grey believed that all men were equal—well, almost equal—as long as they adopted a civilized mode of dress and decent habits” (85). He also asserted that “Grey was a wonderful man whose only motive for coming to and ruling the land of the amaXhosa was to change the customs of the barbarous natives and introduce them to British civilization” (85). Not only does Mjuza represent those who identify with their colonizers, he also represents the compromising alliances that get formed in times of war or tragedy—Twin-Twin may disagree with Mjuza on the intentions of Sir George Grey, but as fellow unbelievers in the cattle-killing prophesies, he feels he needs to align himself with those who are working on behalf of the British.

Post-Apartheid South Africa

Although Camagu does not get introduced until the second chapter, his soul is where the battle for the future of Qolorha-by-Sea, and by extension, where post-apartheid South Africa gets played out. 

Camagu had left South Africa in his teen years and had gone on to have illustrious positions at UNESCO and the Food and Agricultural Association. When he returned after what he terms an almost 30-year “exile” in 1994, he found that South Africa had no interest in his expertise in developmental communications. He had been abroad when his country needed him, and he never learned the freedom dance—“the freedom dance that the youth used to dance when people were fighting for liberation” (28). 

Camagu has decided to return to “exile,” but on the way to the airport, he decides to take a 10-hour detour to Qolorha-by-Sea to find NomaRussia, the young woman who had captivated him with her singing and beauty the night before. In the village, he is unsuccessful in finding NomaRussia, but he soon becomes the physical embodiment of the struggle between the Believers and the Unbelievers. He is an educated stranger amid those that believe in the prophesies of the Middle Generations and those that reject the prophesies and assert that they stand for progress and civilization. Each try to claim Camagu as their own. Camagu finds himself pulled in opposite directions by Xoliswa Ximiya, the beautiful and intellectual daughter of Bhonco, who resurrected the cult of the Unbelievers, and Qukezwa, the wild and spiritual daughter of Zim, the man who leads those who still believe in the prophesies.

Camagu has been displaced because of his exile, but he has the opportunity to find his role in rebuilding his country if he listens and learns, rather than by imposing his own ideas on the people of Qolorha-by-Sea.

Post-Apartheid South Africa

Bhonco Ximiya, Twin-Twin’s direct ancestor, has resurrected the cult of the Unbelievers. He carries the scars that were passed down to each first-born son of Twin-Twin’s descendants but does not have a son to pass the scars along to. While Bhonco considers himself an “Unbeliever,” he actually has very strong beliefs. He is only an “unbeliever” in relation to the prophesies, but that does not mean that he is an unbeliever in all things. Bhonco is very spiritual and engages in rituals that allow him to time travel back to the mid-1800’s and the “sufferings of the Middle Generations” (3). He also believes strongly in progress. He spent most of his money educating his daughter, Xoliswa Ximiya. When it comes to the respect he has for his wife and daughter, he seems to have more in common with Twin than his own ancestor, Twin-Twin. Unlike Xoliswa Ximiya, Bhonco feels connected to his past. He experiences the pain of his ancestors as his own, which ultimately results in him avenging Ximiya’s decapitation.

Post-Apartheid South Africa

While Bhonco identifies as an “Unbeliever,” his daughter, Xoliswa Ximiya, takes it even further. She rejects the past entirely. Xoliswa Ximiya does not value tradition or the past. She is beautiful in a dispassionate way that both attracts and repels Camagu. When Xoliswa Ximiya inherits the scars that had previously only been inherited by the first-born sons of Twin’s progeny, the gossip in the village is that her education, single status, and position of authority make her more of a man than a woman. In the fight for Camagu’s soul, Xoliswa Ximiya appeals to his intellect but does not have a visceral effect on him. When Camagu finds himself aroused with Qukezwa, he purposely thinks of Xoliswa Ximiya: “Perhaps if he takes his mind off his dire situation, and sends it to dwell on Xoliswa Ximiya’s icy beauty, there might be some respite” (152).

Post-Apartheid South Africa

Twin’s direct descendant, Zim is leader of the Believers. The feud between Twin and Twin-Twin is continued by Zim and Bhonco. Both men feel a strong connection to their ancestors, but Zim’s sustained belief in the prophesies leads him to value preservation over development. While his concern for sustaining Qolorha-by-Sea’s natural state seems authentic, part of it does seem to be fueled by his resentment of Bhonco and the other Unbelievers. If one man takes a stand, the other automatically takes the opposite position. They seem more motivated by their animus for each other than their strong-held beliefs. What began as a sincere difference in opinion by their ancestors has grown into a situation where hate for the other dictates their actions and positions.

Post-Apartheid South Africa

Qukezwa shares more than just a name with her ancestor from the Middle Generations. Both women are spiritual and feel a strong connection to the land. When Camagu hears Qukezwa sing in split-tones, her song captivates him: 

Camagu had never heard such singing before. He once read of the amaXhosa mountain women who were good at split-tone singing. He also heard that the only other people in the world who could do this were Tibetan monks. He did not expect that this girl could be the guardian of a dying tradition (152). 

While the Qukezwa of the Middle Generations converted her husband to the religion of the Khoikhoi, Zim’s daughter leads Camagu to value the prophesies and the history of Qolorha-by-Sea. Both women are comfortable in their own skin and with their sexuality. Qukezwa’s apparent immaculate conception of her son also adds a sense of destiny for Qukezwa and Heitsi.

Post-Apartheid South Africa

NomaRussia is the mystery woman who leads Camagu to Qolorha-by-Sea. Although he does not find her until it is too late, she has altered the fate of the other characters by inadvertently luring him to the village. While Xoliswa Ximiya appeals to Camagu’s intellect and ego, and Qukezwa appeals to his spirit and sexuality, NomaRussia appeals to his heart. There is a pureness in his feelings towards her that is not present in his feelings toward the other two women. NomaRussia also represents the start of a new rift. She has vowed to haunt the Zim household as payback for the curse put on her by Zim’s wife. The negative effects of NomaRussia’s vengeance can be seen even before her death. Before Camagu saw her again, all he wanted was Qukezwa and their son, Heitsi, to come live with him. But NomaRussia’s return into his life sows discontent and doubt in Camagu’s relationship with Qukezwa. It is not clear in the end if Qukezwa ever joins Camagu in his cottage by the sea.