The End of Drum-Time

The End of Drum-Time is set in the 19th century, a period marked by sociopolitical changes and the intensification of Christianization and colonization efforts in Scandinavia. Christianization of the Indigenous Sámi people began as early as the Middle Ages but gained momentum in the 17th and 18th centuries, and efforts intensified in the 19th century. Missionaries, often supported by state authorities, sought to convert the Sámi from their traditional shamanistic and animistic beliefs and practices to Christianity. This process was part of a broader European movement to spread Christianity, which was seen not only as a religious duty but also as a way to “civilize” Indigenous populations.

In the novel, Pastor Lars Levi Laestadius represents these Christianization efforts. A historical figure, Laestadius was a Swedish Sámi Lutheran pastor and botanist who led a religious revival among the Sámi in the 19th century. His fervent preaching and missionary activities aimed at eradicating traditional Sámi practices, which he viewed as pagan. This period saw the establishment of churches and schools designed to indoctrinate Sámi children into Christian beliefs, often at the expense of their native languages and traditions.

Colonization in the Scandinavian context involved the expansion of Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish state control over the Sámi territories, which spanned across these modern nation-states. This colonization was not only territorial but also cultural and economic, fitting the pattern of settler colonialism. Settler colonialism involves the establishment of permanent settlements by outsiders on Indigenous lands, often accompanied by efforts to displace and assimilate the Indigenous population.

The Sámi way of life, which included semi-nomadic reindeer herding, fishing, and hunting, was increasingly disrupted by the encroachment of settlers, the establishment of borders, and the imposition of new legal and economic systems. The novel’s depiction of the reindeer herd scattering symbolizes the broader disruptions caused by settler colonialism. The traditional Sámi economy, based on reindeer herding, was threatened by the settlers’ agricultural practices, resource extraction, and the introduction of market economies. This economic pressure was compounded by legal measures that restricted Sámi access to land and resources, leading to significant cultural and social upheaval.

Despite these pressures, the Sámi communities showed resilience and adaptability. They engaged in various forms of resistance, from subtle acts of cultural preservation to more overt confrontations with colonial authorities. The Sámi’s connection to their land and traditions provided a source of strength and continuity amid the changing sociopolitical landscape. The novel illustrates this resilience through characters like Ivvár and Risten, who struggle to maintain their cultural identity and practices in the face of external pressures. The Sámi drums, as a motif in the novel, highlight the spiritual and cultural resistance to Christianization, symbolizing the enduring connection to their ancestral beliefs and practices.

The 19th century was also a period of national awakening in Scandinavia, with burgeoning nationalist movements seeking to define and assert the identities of emerging nation-states. This often involved the assimilation of Indigenous and other marginalized populations, who were seen as obstacles to national unity and progress. The Sámi, with their distinct languages, cultures, and semi-nomadic lifestyle, were often targeted by assimilation policies aimed at integrating them into the dominant national cultures.