Samson Agonistes

The preface that often accompanies the poem identifies the poem’s genre as a “Dramatic Poem which is call’d Tragedy” (Milton, John. Of that sort of Dramatic Poem which is call’d Tragedy. 1671. The John Milton Reading Room). Samson Agonistes is written in as a poem “never was intended” for the stage (“Of that sort of Dramatic Poem”)—it lacks scene and act divisions, and stage directions. However, it’s also a dramatization of a biblical myth that ends with the protagonist’s death (the definition of a stage drama).

Milton’s use of dramatic conventions follows Aristotle, who in Poetics (ca 335 BCE) argues that what people see performed can experience catharsis, or a transformative emotional release. Paraphrasing Aristotle, Milton defines tragedy’s purpose as “raising pity and fear, or terror, to purge the mind of those and such like passions” (“Of that sort of Dramatic Poem”). Milton has an audience in mind for his poem: People who, by reading about Samson’s pain, can transcend their own struggles.

The poem also borrows from another genre: parable or allegory. The Philistines who oppress the temporarily weakened Samson can only push him for so long before their power structures crumble on top of them. The political subtext of Milton’s work is clear: The restored Stuart dynasty, which Milton viewed as oppressive, should be wary of acting like the Philistines when punishing the supporters of Cromwell—supporters like Milton.

The poem’s portrayal of its protagonist and hero, Samson, is unexpected. The formerly powerful warrior is enduring “[l]ife in captivity” (Line 108), no longer superhuman, tormented by “restless thoughts” (Line 19), and endures “daily fraud, contempt, abuse and wrong” (Line 76). His opening monologue features hyperbole, a rhetorical device that uses exaggerated language for emphasis. Here, Samson is in despair due to his fear that he can no longer fulfill the great deeds God has chosen him to do. His suffering introduces the theme of Free Will Versus God’s Plan: Samson sees his life as predetermined; his marriage to Dalila, his betrayal, and his imprisonment are a part of God’s plan. This means that he has trouble making decisions about what to do next besides wallowing in self-pity.

The play uses a device from ancient Greek drama: the Chorus, a group that is both within and outside the action of the play. While the Chorus interacts with Samson, echoing his dismay and trying to rouse him to action, they also serve as commentator and narrator.

The Chorus’s first response to seeing Samson’s state introduces the theme of Greatness Versus Meekness. Shocked that the “worn and soil’d” (Line 123) person before them is “That Heroic, that Renown’d, / Irresistible Samson?” (Lines 124-26), the Chorus contrasts Samson’s prior power, which no army could resist or control, with his current weak and helpless state. Adding to their dismay, Samson uses vivid imagery to describe his afflictions, portraying himself as the captain of a crashed ship that came “from above” (Line 199), i.e., God. Samson is not sure whether he has wrecked God’s plan for him, or whether being immiserated is an important lesson: How “slight the gift” (Line 59) of magical strength is.

To bolster Samson, Chorus uses a consoling tone to put the blame elsewhere: “wisest Men / Have err’d, and by bad Women been deceiv’d” (Lines 210-11). Relying on the misogynist trope of conniving women, the Chorus introduces a theme that runs through much of Milton’s work: The Untrustworthiness of Women. In the play, men represent wisdom and goodness and women represent deceit. Even given this sexist dichotomy, however, Samson still blames himself for sharing his secret with Dalila. As a man, Samson is supposed to have the power to keep sensitive information to himself. Instead, he gave up his “fort of silence to a Woman” (Line 236), giving up the silence or laconic conduct that is a mark of strength.

Milton’s work contains many allusions to the Bible, and to Christian philosophy; many of these revolve around the theme of Free Will Versus God’s Plan. When the Chorus tells Samson, “Just are the ways of God, / And justifiable to Men” (Lines 293-94), the lines echo those of Milton’s earlier epic poem Paradise Lost, where the speaker, arguably Milton, “I may assert Eternal Providence / And justify the ways of God to men” (Book 1, Lines 25-26). When the Chorus tells Samson that people who don’t believe in God have “the heart of the Fool” (Line 298), Milton is quoting Psalms 14.1: “The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God.” The idea that “the ways of God” have a just and reasonable purpose that humans are unable to understand is a key feature of the Old Testament’s answer to the problem of theodicy, or the question of why an omnipotent and providential deity allows evil to exist. The Chorus’s role here parallels that of the counselors in the Book of Job—when Job, another Old Testament figure who proves his dedication to God by enduring God’s harsh treatment, wonders why God would allow his torments, a series of advisers tells him not to try to make sense of divine purpose.

Since suffering symbolizes godliness in the poem, Samson’s father Manoa functions as a kind of antagonist. Manoa sees Samson’s ordeal not as divine abasement, but as the result of manmade mistakes. He reproaches Samson for marrying Dalila, using a blunt, almost comically deadpan tone: “I cannot praise thy Marriage choises, Son” (Line 420). A pragmatic and loving man, Manoa wants to free his son from prison; however, his proposed ways of doing so are underhanded. He offers to bribe the Philistines, attempting to persuade Samson to think differently about his experiences. However, Samson refuses to use Philistine weaknesses against them, and he rejects his father’s questioning of God’s plan, asking his father, “let me here / As I deserve, pay on my punishment; and expiate, if possible, my crime” (Lines 488-89).

By accepting all responsibility, Samson accepts God’s inscrutable judgment, including consequences such as blindness. This yielding plays into the theme of Greatness Versus Meekness. As Samson can’t see outward, he looks inward and realizes his hubris: He behaved “like a petty God” (Line 529) and was “swoll’n with pride” (Line 532). Now, imprisonment has made him meek and introspective. Samson wants no alleviation of his suffering but “consolation from above” (Line 664).

The entrance of Dalila returns to the theme of The Untrustworthiness of Women. She’s “bedeckt, ornate, and gay” (Line 713)—in other words, her appeal is purely superficial. Samson, who views Dalila as a traitor, adopts an aggressive and angry tone; yelling, “Out, out Hyaena” (Line 748), he compares his wife to an animal known for a hollow, meaningless laugh. Dalila is an ambiguous and complex figure. She is compassionate toward Samson and claims to love him. Although she is responsible for Samson’s current situation—she cut off his magically strong hair one night after telling the Philistines the secret source of her husband’s power—she claims that she only did so after irresistible pressure to ally with her own people. This explanation and Dalila’s subsequent offer to become a less harsh warden for Samson play on assumptions about women’s relative weakness and their duplicity.

It is unclear whether Dalila is lying about her motivations or actions: The poem clearly believes that women are weaker than men, so her claim to have been undone by Philistine demands makes sense; however, the idea of a wife betraying her husband after vowing to be “one flesh” (as the marriage ceremony has it) makes Dalila into an obvious villain. Samson mocks Dalila’s “pious works” (Line 955)—a sarcastic reference to her evil-doing. The Chorus piles on, claiming that women lack “inward gifts” (Line 1026) and arguing that God grants “man despotic power / Over his female” (Lines 1054-55). The Chorus’s generalizing is a standard sexist trope in Christianity: Ascribing to all women traits found in one (typically Eve, who is blamed for the Fall from the Garden of Eden). By not following her husband, Dalila has rebelled against his rule in the same way that Lucifer defied the absolute rule of God.

The powerful giant Harapha is a foil for Samson, a literal representation of the theme Greatness Versus Meekness. Harapha, who is not in the Old Testament story, is everything Samson used to be: a strong, aggressive champion of his people. Described as a storm, the Philistine fighter is also honorable. Though he calls Samson a criminal and boasts that he could beat him in a fight, he turns down Samson’s invitation to battle because of Samson’s blindness. Samson’s insistence on fighting the giant suggests he still hasn’t fully lost his confidence or will to compete.

The approach of the climax brings the theme of Free Will Versus God’s Plan back to the fore. Although Samson is horrified by the idea of performing for the Philistines and their Dagon feast—He won’t “displease / God for the fear of Man” (Lines 1373-74) by abusing his gift of strength for an idol—mysterious “rouzing motions” (Line 1382) compel Samson to agree to go. This supernatural external motivation, which is implied to come from God, does what none of Samson’s tempters could: change his mind.

Modern readers may be surprised that the main action of the play—Samson’s destruction of the Philistines—takes place off-stage. This, however, is a feature of the ancient dramatic tradition that Milton is following. Noises from backstage make it clear that battle is taking place, but Manoa, the Chorus, and the audience do not know its outcome until a messenger relays what happened. The detailed description allows the audience to witness Samson’s destructive performance in their imaginations. The Chorus tells the reader how to feel about the ending: “All is best, though we oft doubt” (Line 1745). Samson has completed his mission, and if anyone doubts God’s plan, they shouldn’t.

In Milton’s retelling, Samson’s torments and eventual spectacle-based death turn him into a Christ figure. Both men are betrayed by close loved ones: Judas and Dalila. Moreover, Milton’s Paradise Regained describes Christ suffering in the wilderness while enduring the temptations offered by Satan. In Samson Agonistes, Samson also endures torment and has to resist the temptation to escape—whether it’s through his father’s ransom or Dalila’s care. After successfully not yielding to temptation, Samson sacrifices himself for the Israelites in a way that echoes Christ’s death for humanity’s sins. The Chorus’s comparison of Samson to a phoenix hints at some kind of resurrection for Samson—a rebirth that mirrors Christ’s rising from the dead.

The final lines again bring up the idea that the purpose of the tragedy is catharsis. With the play over, the audience can find “peace and consolation” (Line 1757): Their angry thoughts can go away, and calm can return.