Politics

“The polis, or political association, is the crown; it completes and fulfils the nature of man: it is thus natural to him, and he is himself naturally a polis-animal.”

This quotation aligns with the theme The Political Nature of Man. Aristotle sees politics as an essential component of what defines humanity, with man defined as a “political animal” by nature. Individuals become better and their qualities become more refined when they live in a community and work together toward a common good. Forms of government can create a framework for virtuous living.

“The element which is able, by virtue of its intelligence, to exercise forethought, is naturally a ruling and master element; the element which is able, by virtue of its bodily power, to do the physical work, is a ruled element, which is naturally in a state of slavery; and master and slave have accordingly a common interest.”

Aristotle uses the theme The Political Nature of Man to justify another theme within the work: Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation. In this passage, the philosopher argues that the natural world contains hierarchies. These hierarchies are separated by those who are meant to hold power and those who are meant to be subject to that power. He suggests that these same natural hierarchies occur in humanity, and he uses this argument to justify slavery and limited citizenship.

“People make the lives of the gods in the likeness of their own—as they also make their shapes.”

This quotation holds an interesting theological assertion. Traditionally, humans were viewed as the creation of the gods and made in the likeness of the gods rather than the reverse. Here, Aristotle suggests that humans build narratives of the gods based upon their own experiences and natural inclinations.

“If the whole body is destroyed, there will not be a foot or a hand, except in that ambiguous sense in which one uses the same word to indicate a different thing, as when one speaks of a ‘hand’ made of stone; for a hand, when destroyed [by the destruction of the whole body], will be no better than stone ‘hand.’”

Aristotle views cities as larger embodiments of the human form. Just as the individual has various organs that contribute to a larger purpose, cities are comprised of many parts that work toward a particular aim. As seen in the theme Politics as a Pathway for Good and Happiness, Aristotle suggests that this aim is virtue. All parts of a government must interconnect and work together to emphasize a virtuous life.

“A city, by its nature, is some form of plurality.”

The philosopher presents two juxtaposing ideas throughout the work. He claims that a city is diverse. The best type of government for a city is determined by the qualities and characteristics of its diverse population. However, this idea is challenged by Aristotle’s limitations of who qualifies as a citizen. He presents a narrow definition of citizenship, which eliminates greater diversity in public representation and leadership.

“Indeed there are some women, and some females in the animal world (mares, for instance, and cows), that show a strong natural tendency to produce offspring resembling the male parent.”

This quotation contributes to the theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation. The philosopher’s comparison of women to cows is representative of his own attitudes about the female sex, as well as the attitudes within his historical context. As the philosopher theorizes about property and how it should be shared, he includes women—as well as children and enslaved peoples—in that category.

“In a city which is excessively unified no man can show himself generous, or indeed do a generous act; for the function of generosity consists in the proper use which is made of property.”

Aristotle’s views are starkly different from his predecessor Plato’s theories about politics. Plato advocates for the sharing of property in a form of government that more closely aligns to modern communism. Aristotle argues that this form of government strips individuals from the opportunity to choose right action and live a virtuous life.

“The truth is that we cannot include as citizens all who are necessary to the city’s existence.”

Aristotle places great limitations on who can and cannot be categorized as a citizen, and he narrows this definition even further when discussing who may hold power within a governing body. Although he recognizes the importance of laborers, mechanics, artists, and farmers, the philosopher excludes them from the political conversation. When considering the theme The Political Nature of Man, this has major implications: By denying their role in the political world, Aristotle denies their nature and humanity.

“The good in the sphere of politics is justice; and justice consists in what tends to promote the common interest.”

In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle promotes justice as one of the most important virtues. Similarly, he argues here in Politics that justice is one of the greatest responsibilities of legislators. A constitution without justice is fragile and it does not create a framework for the common good.

“The only constitution which can with strict justice be called an aristocracy is one where the members are not merely ‘good’ in relation to some standard or other, but are absolutely the ‘best’ [aristoi] so far as excellence [of mind and character] is concerned.”

In this passage, Aristotle establishes his preferred form of government: the aristocracy. He suggests that this constitution is the one which most promotes a virtuous lifestyle and is the most practical. The philosopher’s critique of governments and citizenship is ironic due to his own political status. Born in Macedonia, Aristotle was excluded from Athens’ political conversation. Yet, he continued to perpetuate extreme limitations.

“It seems impossible that there should be good government in a city which is ruled by the poorer sort, and not by the best of its citizens; and, conversely, it is equally impossible for a city which is not well-governed to be an aristocracy.”

Aristotle’s bias against the working class or lower classes is revealed here, contributing to the theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation. The philosopher argues that lower-class citizens do not have the leisure time or intelligence necessary to participate in political activity. This reasoning also provides the basis for his greatest critique of a democratic form of government.

“If we were right when, in the Ethics, we stated that the truly happy life is one of goodness lived in freedom from impediments and that goodness consists in a mean, it follows that the best way of life is one which consists in a mean, and a mean of the kind attainable by each individual.”

Aristotle’s emphasis on moderation, represented here by the “mean,” is reflected in his theories about both ethics and politics. In all forms of government, the philosopher argues that elements need to be pulled from others to ensure success. Pure forms of government rarely work because they do not reflect or meet the diverse needs of the population, with a tendency towards extremes instead of moderation and virtue.

“But, though factional disputes are caused by little things, they are not about little things.”

The philosopher cautions legislators from shirking the duties of maintaining and securing the constitution. He suggests that even the smallest conflicts can alter the fragile structure of a governing body.

“The aim of a tyrant is his own pleasure: the aim of a king is the Good.”

This quotation creates a distinction between two similar forms of government. Aristotle claims that the difference between tyranny and monarchy rests in purpose and virtue. This contributes to the theme Politics as a Pathway for Good and Happiness. The philosopher considers tyranny to be an incorrect form of government because it does not contribute to the greater common good, with the tyrant instead caring only for his own desires.

“Because they [do not] have the necessities of life, they stick to their work, and do not covet what does not belong to them; indeed they find more pleasure in work than they do in politics and government—unless there are large pickings to be got from having a finger in government.”

This passage offers another justification for the oppression and subjugation of certain groups of people. In this section, he proposes that lower classes and farming classes have no interest in contributing to the political conversation unless they may achieve financial gain. This idea correlates with the theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation.

“Poverty is the cause of the defects of democracy. That is the reason why measures should be taken to ensure a permanent level of prosperity.”

The theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation is represented once more in this quotation. Aristotle views the lower class as the downfall of the democratic form of government and sees it as a threat to any governing power. His advocacy for a set wage for lower classes has little to do with generosity. Instead, it is a strategy for securing the stability of the constitution.

“There is one thing clear about the best constitution: it must be a political organization which will enable anyone to be at his best and live happily.”

This quotation speaks to the heart of Aristotle’s thesis. His theories reject the idea that governments exist only to maintain order or to exchange security for loyalty. Instead, Aristotle views the function of government as a key component of a virtuous life. Humans can only achieve happiness if they live in communities and work together in political action.

“It possesses both spirit and intelligence, for which reason it continues to be free, to have the highest political development, and to be capable of governing every other people.”

This quotation refers to the nature of people from Greek cities, whom Aristotle credits with innately possessing both “spirit and intelligence.” In this passage, Aristotle shares his reasoning for why Northern European and Asian peoples are not qualified for citizenship. He suggests that Greek peoples have the best qualities of both regions. This passage contributes to the theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation. It also aligns with The Political Nature of Man. Aristotle views politics as something natural, and he uses a naturalized argument to limit access to the political world.

“The elements we use most and oftenest for the support of our bodies contribute most to their health; and water and air have both an effect of this nature.”

Aristotle’s political approach is unique because he considers how politics affect and interplay with the mind, soul, and body. He suggests that all parts of the body play a role in advancing virtue, just as all parts of a city play a role in contributing to the common good.

“[N]o mechanic, or farmer, or other such person, should be permitted to enter, except on the summons of the magistrates.”

In this section on common meals, Aristotle once more provides a limitation. This connects to the theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation. Although his argument in other passages emphasizes that farmers and mechanics have neither the interest in political action nor the time to invest in it, this passage reveals Aristotle’s bias. His basis for excluding these groups of people from communal meals has little to do with his previous arguments.

“There are three means by which individuals become good and virtuous. These three are nature, habit, and reason.”

These three concepts provide the foundation for Aristotle’s arguments about education. He views schooling as a structure which upholds the constitution and secures the governing body's permanence. Civic education can utilize these three concepts to achieve this aim.

“The city as a whole has a single end.”

The philosopher argues that the city’s main purpose is to achieve a common good, to create a framework within which citizens can pursue happiness through virtuous living, as revealed in the theme Politics as a Pathway for Good and Happiness. Therefore, he perceives that education must also advance this goal. Aristotle suggests that education should always be public and governed by the constitution, as this is the only way to ensure the longevity of the political association.

“Physical work clogs the mind; and mental work hampers the body.”

The philosopher advocates for an education which engages the whole body. He believes the younger years should be devoted to the body's development through light physical activity, which must be balanced by intellectual pursuits. Once more, Aristotle presents a theory of moderation which he sees as the key to virtue.