The History of Sexuality: Volume 1

Michel Foucault (1926-1984) was a French philosopher, social and political critic, and historian. He examined power structures and how they manifested within systems of mental illness, incarceration, education, knowledge, and sexuality. Foucault was often considered part of the post-structuralist and post-modernist movements, though he disavowed these labels. Like many philosophers and theorists of his generation, Foucault began his career as a structuralist but then began to critique the structuralist theoretical framework. Rooted in the ideas of the linguist Ferdinad de Saussure and the anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, among others, structuralism rejected the centrality of individual choice in determining history and culture, instead placing human behaviors within the context of larger social, historical, and narrative structures—arguing that those structures determined which choices were possible or even imaginable in any given time and place. Post-structuralists break apart the cause-effect relationships between context and action. Similarly, postmodernism rejects the idea of a grand historical narrative, focusing instead on how systems of power use those narratives to perpetuate themselves. Rather than viewing history as a linear progression of related events, post-structuralists and postmodernists uphold the discontinuities that fail to align with larger cultural trends. Foucault embraced discontinuity after reading Friedrich Nietzsche’s Untimely Meditations. However, much of Foucault’s work blends structuralist and post-structuralist approaches.

Like his philosophical work, Foucault’s personal life challenged societal norms. Foucault was born into a wealthy family, and his father hoped that Michel would become a surgeon like others in his family. Instead, Foucault attended the University of Paris (Sorbonne) and studied philosophy and psychology. As Foucault became interested in breaking apart power structures, he tried to downplay his upper-class childhood. In his twenties, Foucault struggled with self-harm and substance use, and he struggled to make friends. His classmates ridiculed Foucault for his strange habits, such as covering his dorm room walls with images of historical torture. The young philosopher was gay during a period in French history when anti-gay bias permeated the culture. In 1950, Foucault joined the Communist Party but later left when he found that the anti-gay bias of 20th-century France was also prevalent in the party. Foucault was also disillusioned with the work of Karl Marx; he did not agree that the bourgeoisie wielded an absolute and repressive form of power. Instead, Foucault argued that power was pervasive; all humans wielded and used power in various ways.

Madness and Civilization, published in 1961, was Foucault’s first major work. In it, the philosopher compiles a study of how those who lived outside of societal and cultural norms were treated in history. Foucault argues that the mentally ill lived happier lives prior to the 18th century, before a shift toward humanitarianism demanded that these cultural outliers be tucked away in institutions. Madness and Civilization formed the foundation for Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975). In this work, Foucault looked once more at how those who did not align with accepted models of life were hidden from public view. Punishment shifted from public spectacle to invisibility, thereby increasing its cruelty. Foucault was a leading prison reform activist and member of a group that sought to spread information about the atrocities committed in French incarceration institutions. This group gathered testimonies from prisoners and distributed them to the public. In Discipline and Punish, the philosopher examined the role power played in creating the modern prison system. Rather than the exertion of a greater governmental power, the evolution of prisons was molded by the many pervasive strategies of power throughout society.

Foucault’s other works include The Birth of the Clinic, The Order of Things, The Archaeology of Knowledge, Abnormal, and others. Although his works have been used to critique systems of power, Foucault has a controversial legacy that has been criticized because of his personal life and colonial ties. However, he is considered one of the most important scholars in modern history, and his work continues to influence writers and thinkers across the world. Foucault died from HIV/AIDS in 1984. His longtime partner Daniel Defert founded an AIDS charity to honor his memory.