A Lesson Before Dying

“A cornered animal to strike quickly out of fear, a trait inherited from his ancestors in the deepest jungle of blackest Africa—yes, yes, that he can do—but to plan? To plan, gentlemen of the jury? No, gentlemen, this skull here holds no plans.”

The stereotypes raised and used by Jefferson’s attorney in his defense only reinforce the racism of the all-white jury. Jefferson’s attorney argues that he is more an animal than a man, and this is inherent in his genetic make-up, making his character something pre-determined and biological rather than something “individual.” If the jury is to find Jefferson innocent, they must do so because they do not find him to be a human. Humanity and how it is practiced across racial, gender, and generational lines is a significant theme in the story.

“The public defender called him a hog, and she wants me to make him a man. Within the next few weeks, maybe a month, whatever the law allows—make him a man. Exactly what I’m trying to do here with you now: to make you responsible young men and young ladies. But you, you prefer to lay with bugs. You refuse to study your arithmetic, and you prefer writing slanted sentences instead of straight ones. Does that make any sense? Well, does it?”

Initially, Grant tries to use Jefferson’s situation as a motivational teaching tool with his students. Here, Grant demonstrates his belief in the power of formal academic education to transform the circumstances of the Black community in the “quarter.” The power and meaning of education is a major theme in this story. He is also implying that formal education is the difference between an animal and a man, an uncivilized person and someone who can be successful in civilized society.

“But I would not eat at Henri Pichot’s kitchen table. I had come through the back door against my will, and it seemed that he and the sheriff were doing everything they could to humiliate me even more by making me wait on them. Well, I had to put up with that because of those in the quarter, but I damned sure would not add hurt to injury by eating at his kitchen table.” 

The theme of racism and the ugly history of the plantation slavery system in the South figure prominently in this story. Despite formal slavery being gone by 1947, the effects are still very present in the beliefs, attitudes, and customs of both the Black and white members of this community. Grant’s life experience and formal education has helped him understand these dynamics and he struggles with the tension between his desire to be respected as an educated man, and his desire to avoid making the lives of people in the quarter more difficult than they already are. In Grant’s eyes, being treated like just another Black member of the quarter denies him his individuality and hard work to become something “more.”

“And I’d rather see a contented hog go to that chair than an aggravated hog. It would be better for everybody concerned. There ain’t a thing you can put in that skull that ain’t there already.”

These are the words of the white sheriff Guidry in his response to Grant’s request to visit Jefferson. After listening to the pleas of Miss Emma, the sheriff’s main concern is that the visits will only upset Jefferson and make him a more challenging prisoner to control. The sheriff reiterates his belief that Jefferson is not capable of transformation, so the efforts are a waste of time. Miss Emma pleads for Jefferson’s humanity, the sheriff is indifferent, and Grant is reticent because knows it won’t change the outcome. 

“And besides looking at hands, now he began inspecting teeth. Open wide, say ‘Ahhh’—and he would have the poor children spreading out their lips as far as they could while he peered into their mouths. At the university I had read about slave masters who had done the same when buying new slaves, and I had read of cattlemen doing it when purchasing horses and cattle. At least Dr. Joseph had graduated to the level where he let the children spread out their own lips, rather than using some kind of crude metal instrument. I appreciated his humanitarianism.” 

The themes of racism, education, and humanity are evident through the use of Grant’s sarcasm in “appreciating” Dr. Joseph’s “humanitarianism.” Grant explicitly compares the superintendent’s behavior to slave masters and further illustrates the entrenched racism and practices that still remain, even after the formal institution is gone. The inspection is more like how a man examines an animal than how a man evaluates a student. Dr. Joseph is mainly concerned with hygiene, appearance, and thrift. 

“‘Everything you sent me to school for, you’re stripping me of it,’ I told my aunt. They were looking at the fire, and I stood behind them with the bag of food. ‘The humiliation I had to go through, going into that man’s kitchen. The hours I had to wait while they ate and drank and socialized before they would even see me. Now going up to that jail. To watch them put their dirty hands on that food. To search my body each time as if I’m some kind of common criminal. Maybe today they’ll want to look into my mouth, or my nostrils, or make me strip. Anything to humiliate me. All the things you wanted me to escape by going to school. Years ago, Professor Antoine told me that if I stayed here, they were going to break me down to the n——r I was born to be. But he didn’t tell me that my aunt would help them do it.’” 

Grant is experiencing the accumulated impact of the daily humiliations at the hands of white men, and he resents that his own family member is insisting he continue to put himself through it. Grant is still a victim of his circumstances, trapped in the vicious cycle, despite having gone to college. He is beginning to see his own hypocrisy as a teacher preparing his students for academic success when every day he sees that it will not matter in how they are treated by white society and the white justice system. Grant is taking out his anger on his aunt and accuses her of being complicit in his humiliation, when in actuality Grant is mad at himself for being powerless to change his situation.

“‘I’m a old hog,’ he said. ‘Youmans don’t stay in no stall like this. I’m a old hog they fattening up to kill.’” 

Dialect and dialogue are what drive the development of characters and themes in this novel. Jefferson speaks in his own voice and has clearly internalized the message that he is no different or better than an animal. Jefferson’s dialect also shows that he is not formally educated like Grant. Jefferson is closer to a representation of the “common man” in the quarter. He knows he is in a cell or “stall,” and that is for humans, not animals. Yet it is the white jury, who would consider themselves the very definition of civilized humanity, who put him in this stall and declared him no different than an animal. This is one of many passages that raises the question of the definition and meaning of “humanity.”

“Then I began to listen, to listen closely to how they talked about their heroes, how they talked about the dead and about how great the dead had once been. I heard it everywhere.” 

Grant is sitting in the Rainbow Club and listening to the old men talk about baseball great, Jackie Robinson, who crossed over the color line in professional baseball and went on to be a very successful player of which every Black person in America could be proud. Grant realizes that Robinson represented the possibility of transformation, even in death. The stories of Robinson, which remind Grant of the effect the stories of James Joyce had on the Irish people, are stories of heroism because they represent someone who successfully exercised their individuality, despite their oppressive circumstances. Grant realizes that Robinson is more than human to these old men. He is a hero. He is hope.

“There was no one thing that changed my faith. I suppose it was a combination of many things, but mainly it was just plain studying. […] But I had been running in place ever since, unable to accept what used to be my life, unable to leave it.” 

Religion is another prominent theme is this story. Since returning from college to teach at the school, Grant has refused to attend church with his aunt the way he used to when he was younger. He explains that when he went off to college, he simply did not have time to attend church because he had to study. In addition to time, studying also gave Grant the intellectual understanding about the history of slavery and insights as to his current circumstances. He intellectually understood what was happening and why, but he did not know enough to be able to break free and leave this history behind. He did not yet know who he was without living in the quarter with his aunt, but he could not seem to leave it behind no matter how hard he tried.

“I’m not trying to confuse you, Jefferson. She loves you, and I want you to give her something. Something she can be proud of.” 

Grant is trying to teach Jefferson how to be a man before he dies. In his several lectures to Jefferson, Grant tries to explain why Jefferson should try to value his godmother’s feelings and try to do this one thing for her. The one she wants is for Jefferson to die a man. What that means is unclear to Grant, but he tries to get Jefferson to value his godmother’s humanity and personhood. He doesn’t go so far as to say that he “owes” her this, because Grant himself despises the feeling of being beholden to any of the women in his life. Rather, he frames Jefferson’s effort as a gift, and a gift is something a man gives willingly and not out of obligation, duty, or mandate. A gift is about free will and individual action, and Grant can support these ideas.

“And on Friday too. Always on Friday. Same time as He died, between twelve and three. But they can’t take this one’s life too soon after the recognition of His death, because it might upset the sensitive few. It can happen less than two weeks later, though, because even the sensitive few will have forgotten about their Savior’s death by then.” 

This is among the many references to Christianity and religion in this story. In this case, Grant is comparing Jefferson to Christ to critique a religion that would allow white people to feel comfortable choosing the date and time to put another man to death. Grant’s cynicism shows through when he says that the “sensitive few” would be offended by having an execution be so close to the date of Christ’s execution. The obvious similarities might offend those who cling to their religion as much as they cling to their racism. The relevance of the date highlights the oft-made comparison of Jefferson and Jesus.

“What she wants is for him, Jefferson, and me to change everything that has been going on for three hundred years. She wants it to happen so in case she ever gets out of her bed again, she can go to that little church there in the quarter and say proudly, ‘You see, I told you—I told you he was a man.’” 

Grant is at the height of his frustration, as he has been visiting Jefferson without seeing that his visits or his words are making any difference at all. He is beginning to think that the women’s expectations are just too high for both him and Jefferson, and that to accomplish the task would be akin to surmounting 300 years of slavery just so Miss Emma can claim her godson was a man before he died. In Grant’s own words, he is beginning to realize that being a man means finding a way to express his humanity in the face of 300 years of inhuman treatment. For Grant, that feels like asking him to make Jefferson a hero before he dies.

“‘Yes, sir, batries,’ I said. I had almost said ‘batteries.’” 

Grant is so excited that the sheriff is going to let him give Jefferson a radio that he forgets the sting of humiliation and triumphs in remembering to feign ignorance to achieve his goal. Grant knows the way to score points with the white sheriff is to demonstrate ignorance and deference by mispronouncing the word “battery.” At other points prior to this incident, Grant is outraged when he is disrespected for being an educated man. He says that Henri Pichot no longer has a use for him because he is educated, and he is checked for thinking he is superior when he corrects a white man’s incorrect grammar usage. This quote emphasizes the power of language and expression in oppression. 

“The only thing that keeps him from thinking he is not a hog is that radio.” 

In a climactic moment, Reverend Ambrose calls the radio a “sin box” and tells Grant he has done Jefferson a great disservice to his soul. What could be dismissed as a generational conflict turns out to be a central critique of Christianity. Grant responds by pointing out that the radio symbolizes humanity for Jefferson. The radio connects Jefferson to his people, distracts him from thoughts of being a hog or being put to death, and allows him to have something of his own for the first time in his life. In an act of humanity, Grant gives him this gift, and in an act of humanity, Jefferson accepts Grant’s gift. It is at this point where Jefferson stops referring to himself as a hog, stops hating Grant, and starts interacting with his godmother. This moment raises the question about the necessity of religion because Grant and Jefferson are able to exercise their humanity or manhood without formalized religion.

“‘Tell—tell the chirren thank you for the pe-pecans,’ he stammered.” 

This quote represents the turning point in the novel. Jefferson exercises his individual agency to express thanks for a gift. This is something that happens after he receives the radio and after Grant brings pecans from the students. Jefferson commits a very civilized and human act of manners. This seemingly small gesture takes many visits to accomplish, and Grant feels almost transformed when it happens.

“You can prove them wrong. You can do more than I ever do. I have always done what they wanted me to do, teach reading, writing, and arithmetic. Nothing else—nothing about dignity, nothing about identity, nothing about loving and caring. They never thought we were capable of learning these things. […] And I went along, but hating myself all the time for doing so.” 

As he lectures Jefferson, Grant illustrates his own transformation to manhood. He recognizes that his formal academic education has served to make him an oppressor of his own students. Grant has become a master of the master’s system rather than a revolutionary actor trying to counter it. He finally realizes the education that might actually help his students transform their lives, and he describes it as revolutionary acts of humanity: dignity, identity, caring, and loving. 

“White people believe that they’re better than anyone else on earth—and that’s a myth. The last thing they ever want is to see a black man stand, and think, and show that common humanity that is in us all. It would destroy their myth. They would no longer have justification for having made us slaves and keeping us in the condition we are in. As long as none of us stand, they’re safe. They’re safe with me. They’re safe with Reverend Ambrose. I don’t want them to feel safe with you anymore.” 

In his own way, Grant is asking Jefferson to stop perpetuating the status quo; to stop making the white people feel comfortable, to stop allowing the stereotypes and myths to continue unchallenged. Grant includes himself and Reverend Ambrose in the group of Black men who do not counter white myths. Grant is also referring to the myth of the “Black savage,” which is the white belief that Black people aren’t fully human or capable of “civilized” living. The myth perpetuates the mistreatment of Black people by ensuring that they are not viewed as “people” at all, justifying their treatment as animals, including enslavement, punishment, and death. The myth of the “Black savage” sends the message of low expectations, danger, threat, disease, and the need for containment. Grant is asking Jefferson to defy this myth by standing and walking straight like a man when he goes to the electric chair.

“I am still that piece of drifting wood, and those out there are no better. But you can be better. Because we need you to be and want you to be. Me, your godmother, the children, and all the rest of them in the quarter. Do you understand what I’m saying to you, Jefferson? Do you?” 

In one of his most passionate pleas to Jefferson, Grant uses the analogy of a piece of driftwood transformed into a slingshot by the skilled hands of Farrell Jarreau. Jarreau, an older Black man in the quarter, is a glorified errand boy for the white plantation owner, Henri Pichot. In this passage, Grant recognizes the transformative power of Farrell Jarreau and sees him as a teacher, a survivor, and a man. Earlier in the story, Grant was only been able to see him as someone who never left and never made anything of his life. Grant finally appreciates Jarreau and his actions as significant and making a difference in his community. It is this analogy he uses to convince Jefferson that he must transform himself before his execution.

“Dumb as hell, but prejudiced as hell. They had no other place to go to do their drinking—they would not dare go to any of the white clubs—so they would come here and bring their prejudiced attitude with them.” 

This is Grant’s description of the two biracial men who regularly drink at the Rainbow Club. He refers to them in the book as “the bricklayers,” and explains that they will not do any work that Black men do, like working in the fields. They instead look for contract work, which is one of the few light-skinned privileges they have over Black men. These men introduce the concept of colorism into the novel. 

“And that’s the difference between me and you, boy; that make me the educated one, and you the hump. I know my people. I know what they gone through. I know they done cheated themselves, lied to themselves—hoping that one they all love and trust can come back and help relieve the pain.” 

Reverend Ambrose makes a point to Grant that he knows their people better than Grant does and that makes him the real educated man in the room. The Reverend explains that he knows their pain, and he provides relief with religion and offers of forgiveness. He has chosen to stay and help his people in ways that Grant can’t understand. 

“Me, Mr. Wiggins. Me. Me to take the cross. Your cross, Nannan’s cross, my own cross. Me, Mr. Wiggins. This old stumbling n——r. Y’all axe a lot, Mr. Wiggins.”

Jefferson again compares himself to Christ as he explains the weight of his burdens to Grant. Jefferson feels the responsibility of his individual actions in the final days of his life. Because individual actions cannot and have not been separated out from the social and economic conditions shaped by 300 years of slavery, Jefferson has become a representative symbol for manhood, humanity, religion, sacrifice, and transformation. By placing this story in 1947, Gaines offers a glimpse into the historical window between the end of slavery and reconstruction and before the official civil rights movement had begun. Jefferson’s unjust life and death carries the weight of all that has come before and has the power to transform what may come after.

“I know that that old man is much braver than I. I am not with you at this moment because—because I would not have been able to stand. I would not have been able to walk with you those last few steps. I would have embarrassed you. But the old man will not. He will be strong. He is going to use their God to give him strength. You just watch, Jefferson. You just watch. He is brave, braver than I, braver than any of them—except you, I hope. My faith is in you, Jefferson.” 

Grant demonstrates a new-found respect and appreciation for religion as he recognizes that it allows Reverend Ambrose to be present in this moment with Jefferson, at his last hour, when Grant is not strong enough to attend. At the same time, Grant emphasizes that Ambrose will use “their God” for strength, suggesting that he identifies Reverend Ambrose’s God as the God of white people, and as the God that does not serve himself. Grant has always believed in God, but in an agnostic capacity. Grant wants to believe in hope and the possibility that the vicious cycle of oppression can be broken, but he believes the power to make change lies in and with men and not God.

“Yes they must believe. They must believe, if only to free the mind, if not the body. Only when the mind is free has the body a chance to be free. Yes, they must believe, they must believe. Because I know what it means to be a slave. I am a slave.” 

Desperate to understand himself and how to live with the realities of a society that would put Jefferson to death for being a Black man in the wrong place at the wrong time, Grant identifies with the “slave.” He, too, is a body trapped in physical space and time, unable to transcend his circumstances, with his individual actions pre-ordained. At least this is how he feels. He now understands the purpose of religion for his aunt and Reverend Ambrose and the members of the quarter community. They, too, feel powerless to make change, and so they believe in something larger and more powerful than themselves. This allows them to persist in their daily lives, no matter what the circumstances. It gives them comfort, strength, and solace. Grant longs to find this allusive freedom. He longs to be free of his circumstances.