A History of Western Philosophy

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1945

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Book 2, Part 2, Chapters 7-10Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Part 2: “The Schoolmen”

Chapter 7 Summary: “The Papacy in the Dark Ages”

During the Dark Ages (c. 500-1000), the papacy was pushed and pulled in many different directions. It was subject to power struggles with the Western emperor, the eastern emperor, the eastern patriarch, and the Roman aristocracy. The popes were also threatened at times by the Germanic barbarians. Nevertheless, the papacy survived and, after the Dark Ages were over, thrived.

The year 1000 was a turning point. It was both the beginning of the second Christian millennium and also marked the end of the Dark Ages, ushering in a revival of Western civilization that would affect the world of philosophy. One of the forces that contributed to this revival was the founding of the Holy Roman Empire in 800 by the emperor Charlemagne, predicated on returning to the centralized political and cultural order that characterized the ancient Roman Empire.

Chapter 8 Summary: “John the Scot”

John the Scot, or Johannes Scotus Erigena (810-c.877) was an Irish-born philosopher and theologian who was forward-looking in many respects, anticipating later developments in Western thought. According to Russell, he was a pantheist and a Pelagian who “placed reason above faith” (400), yet escaped persecution by the church.

Chapter 9 Summary: “Ecclesiastical Reform in the Eleventh Century”

In the 1000s, there began a movement of reform of church institutions that contributed to the general improvement of culture and civilization in Western Europe. The theologian and philosopher St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) was one of the intellectual products of this era that marked the gradual recovery of Western culture.

Chapter 10 Summary: “Mohammedan Culture and Philosophy”

While the various developments in Western Europe were taking place, a powerful civilization was growing up in the Middle East and Spain on the basis of the religion of Islam. Islamic scholars excelled in geometry, medicine, astronomy, and other branches of knowledge. The main significance of this civilization for Western philosophy is that Islamic scholars rediscovered Aristotle and transmitted his works to Western scholars. Avicenna (980-1037) and Averroes (1126-1198) are among the most important medieval Islamic philosophers, and many of their works are commentaries on the works of Aristotle.

Chapters 7-10 Analysis

This section covers the period of Western European history usually called the Dark Ages, when there was much political turmoil and civilization and learning were at a generally low ebb. By the end of the section, there are signs of a cultural renewal on the horizon, brought about by such influences as Charlemagne and his founding of the Holy Roman Empire as an attempted continuation of the ancient Roman Empire.

Russell sees the year 1000 as marking the end of Western civilization’s lowest point during the Dark Ages. From 1000 onward, Europe saw a gradual ascent to significant cultural heights, from the High Middle Ages to the Renaissance and beyond. This idea leads Russell to a discussion of broad civilizational questions with special relevance at the time of writing (1945). Russell argues that the “superiority” of Western Europe since the Renaissance has been due to “science and scientific technique” and to “political institutions slowly built up during the Middle Ages” (400). He argues that neither of these factors is guaranteed to continue forever and thus draws a contemporary warning for his readers. Russell suggests that in the future, civilization will have “greater diversity” than previously because of the greater power and ability that China, India, and Japan are showing in contemporary times, especially during World War II. This is a good example of Russell’s interest in drawing contemporary lessons and future predictions from the history of civilization, which forms much of the backdrop to his intellectual history.

Like the previous section, this one contains a good deal of general and political history. Presumably, part of the reason Russell includes this material is that he sees political developments as tied in with the evolution of political theory and philosophy, one of the branches of philosophy which he analyzes in the book. Indeed, throughout the book Russell highlights political and social thought, which get equal treatment with other, more abstract branches of philosophy, such as metaphysics and ethics.